Bird Biology Pigeons   Identification (Columbia livia) Pigeons "typically have a gray body with a whitish rump, two black bars on the secondary wing feathers, a broad black band on the tail, and red feet." Pigeons can vary in body color, from gray to white, tan, and black. The average length of a pigeon is about 11 inches, and their average weight is approximately 13 ounces. Habitat Pigeons have become an urban bird, and highly depended on humans for food, roosting and nesting areas. Pigeons are most commonly found around feeding areas, parks, schools, city buildings, bridges, homes, and many other structures. General Biology The Pigeon was originally "introduced into the United States as a domesticated bird, but many escaped and formed feral populations. These birds have become the most common nuisance urban bird. Pigeons will inhabit any area that will offer them shelter from the climate, for example: ornate architectural features of buildings, lofts, church steeples, attics, and any place with openings that allow for roosting, loafing, and nesting. Pigeon nests consist of twigs, sticks, and grass clumped together to form a platform. Pigeons are monogamous birds. "Eight to twelve days after mating, the female will lay 1 or 2 eggs which hatch after approximately 18 days. The male, during this time, is providing nesting material and guards the female and the nest." When pigeons are born, they feed on pigeon milk which is "a liquid/solid substance secreted in the crop of both adults that is regurgitated" into the mouths of the young pigeons. Most young leave the nest at approximately 4 to 6 weeks of age. During this time another batch of eggs have already been laid. Breeding most commonly occurs during the spring and fall, but reproduction can occur during any season. A flock of pigeons will normally have an equal amount of males and females. A pigeon's normal lifespan in nature is about 3 to 4 years. Damage "Pigeon droppings deface and accelerate the deterioration of buildings and increase the cost of maintenance." Vegetation will decay with the presence of pigeon droppings, which will create an odor problem. Pigeon feces that are dropped on "park benches, statues, cars, and unwary pedestrians is aesthetically displeasing." Pigeons consume and contaminate large quantities of food that is meant for human consumption around grain handling facilities. Many diseases can be contracted through contact with pigeon droppings by humans and livestock. They are known to be able to carry or transmit: " pigeon ornithosis, encephalitis, Newcastle disease, cryptococcosis, toxoplasmosis, salmonella, and several other diseases." Also, with the right conditions, pigeon droppings can harbor "airborne spores of the causal agent of histoplasmosis, and a systemic fungus disease that can infect humans." Pigeons also carry ectoparasites for example: fleas, lice, mites, ticks, and other biting pests. The pigeons that are located around airports threaten human safety due to a possible bird-aircraft collision. The U.S. Air Force considers pigeons as a "medium priority hazard" to jet aircrafts. Legal Status Feral pigeons are not protected by federal law; most states do not offer them sanctuary. Local officials must be contacted before control measures are taken because some localities are designated as bird sanctuaries. Damage Prevention The elimination of all roosting and nesting areas of a structure is important for Urban Pest Bird Management. Feeding and watering of pigeons must be discouraged. Buildings and other structures must be constructed so that they are bird proof. Acknowledgement Courtesy of The Wildlife Damage Handbook Bird Biology Starlings

Identification: European Starlings weigh approximately 3.2 ounces; an average starling is about the size of a robin. The adult starling has dark feathers with speckles. Starling bills (both male and female) are yellow during reproductive season (January to June), the rest of the year starling bills are dark. Juvenile starlings have pale brown to gray bills. "Starlings are chunky and hump-backed in appearance, with a shape similar to that of a meadowlark. The tail is short, and the wings have a triangular shape when outstretched in flight." Starling flight paths tend to be direct and swift.

Habitat
Starlings can be found in various types of habitats "including cities, towns, farms, ranches, open woodlands, fields, and lawns. Perfect nesting habitats would include areas with trees or other structures that have openings that are "suitable for nesting and short grass areas or grazed pastures for foraging. During the winter, starlings live in areas where nesting, roosting, and foraging for food and water is possible.

General Biology
"European starlings were brought into the United States from Europe. The were released in New York City in 1890 and 1891 by an individual who wanted to introduce to the United States all of the birds mentioned in Shakespeare's works. Since that time, they have increased in numbers and spread across the country. The starling population is estimated at 140 million." Starlings will nest in any cavity of a structure, trees, birdhouses, or cliff faces. The female lays about 4 to 7 eggs which hatch 11 to 13 days after incubation. Young starlings will leave the nest at about 21 days old. "Both parents help build the nest, incubate the eggs, and feed the young." Starlings are not necessarily migratory, but some will migrate up to several hundred miles, while others will remain in the same general area. "Hatching-year starlings are more likely to migrate than adults, and they tend to migrate farther." With the exception of breeding season, starlings generally feed and roost together in flocks. Research has shown that starlings can and will feed miles away from their nests. "Starling and blackbird flocks often roost together in urban landscape trees or in small dense woodlots or overcrowded tree groves. These birds will choose trees that have plenty of perches so that the whole flock can roost together. During the winter seasons, starlings will move into dense vegetation or structures such as barns, urban structures, and homes. Starlings always look for protection from the climate.

Damage
Starlings are considered pests due to all the problems they cause, especially around livestock facilities and near urban roosts. Starlings are responsible for "transferring disease from one livestock facility to another. Tests have shown that the transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGE) can pass through the digestive tract of a starling and be infectious in the starling feces. TGE can be transmitted on boots, vehicles, stray animals, or already infected livestock. Starlings cause other types of damage such as consuming cultivated fruits and seeds from a recently planted field. "Large roosts that occur in buildings, industrial structures, or, along with blackbird species in trees near homes are a problem in both rural and urban sites because of health concerns, filth, noise, and odor. In addition, slippery accumulations of droppings pose safety hazards at industrial structures, and the acidity of droppings is corrosive." Starlings that roost near airports create a safety problem, with the possibility of the bird getting sucked into the aircraft engines. One of the more serious health concerns that starlings have is the "fungal respiratory disease histoplasmosis. The fungus Histoplasma capsulatum can grow in soils under bird roosts, and spores become airborne in dry weather, especially when the site is disturbed. Histoplasmosis, in its most extreme state can cause blindness and/or death. Another problem starlings have created is that they are in competition with "native cavity-nesting birds such as bluebirds, flickers, woodpeckers, purple martins.

Legal Status
European Starlings are not protected by federal law and in most cases state law does not offer them protection. Local Fish and Wildlife should be consulted before any methods of treatment are applied.

Damage Prevention
Openings larger than 1 inch must be closed off on buildings and other structures. Netting and hardware-cloth are two ways of closing off cavities in buildings. Eliminate food and water sources.

Acknowledgement
Courtesy of The Wildlife Damage Handbook

Bird Biology Sparrow

Identification
The House or English Sparrow "is a brown, chunky bird, about 5.75 inches long." Sparrows are commonly found around human-made habitats. "The male has a distinctive black bib, white cheeks, a chestnut mantle around the gray crown, and chestnut-colored feathers on the upper wings. The female and young have plane, dingy-gray breast, a distinct buff eye stripe, and a streaked back."

Habitat
The house sparrow can be found in almost every habitat, except for dense forest, desert, and alpine environments. Sparrows' most common areas to live is human-altered habitats, for example: barns and houses. Livestock pastures and seeds provide plenty of food for sparrows.

General Biology
Reproduction can occur during any month, but is most common during the months of March through August. "The male usually selects a nest site and controls a territory centered around it. Nests are bulky, roofed affairs, built haphazardly and without good workmanship." This is a common trait of the weaver finch group of birds. "Sparrows are loosely monogamous." Both male and female take care of the young, even though the female does most of the brooding. Sparrows lay between 3 to 7 eggs. The eggs will hatch 10 to 14 days after incubation. The young leave the nest after 15 days, however the adults will continue to feed the young for two weeks after leaving the nest. House sparrows are aggressive and social. Sparrows are not a migratory bird. Studies have shown that non-breeding adult and juveniles will only move in a 5 mile radius of its original nest; in search of new territories and feeding areas. "Mortality is the highest during the first year of life. The sparrow's success in the wild depends on its ability to adapt to new habitats, especially those that are made by humans.

Damage
House sparrows feed on grains in fields and in storage. Because they feed in large numbers in small areas, their damage is considerable. "Because sparrows live in such close association with humans, they are a factor in the dissemination of diseases (chlamydiosis, cocidiosis, erysipeloid, Newcastle's, parathypoid, pullorum, salmonellosis, transmissile gastroeneteritis, tuberculosis, various encphalitis viruses, vibriosis, and yersinosis), internal parasites (acariasis, taeniasis, schistosomiasis, toxoplosmosis, and trichomoniasis), and household pests (bed bugs, carpet beetles, clothes moths, fleas, lice, mites, and ticks." Fecal contamination of grain storage facilities causes serious monetary damage as well as health risks and pest problems. "House sparrow droppings and feathers create janitorial problems as well as hazardous, unsanitary, and odoriferous situations inside and outside of buildings and sidewalks under roosting areas. Sparrows can cause structural damage by pecking at rigid foam insulation inside of buildings. "The bulky, flammable nests of house sparrows are a potential fire hazard." House sparrows compete with native American birds for favored nesting sites.

Legal Status
House sparrows are not protected by federal law because they are an introduced species to America. Some states in the United States do offer them protection, and require a permit for the removal or eradication of house sparrows. Consult with your local government before applying a method of treatment.

Damage Prevention
All openings 3/4" or smaller must be closed off. Eliminate any possible areas that could be used to secure a nest or could be a roosting area.

Acknowledgement
Courtesy of The Wildlife Damage Handbook